As mentioned above, Plato, preceding by twenty four centuries one of the dogmas of psychoanalysis, believed that "forbidden" dreams, such as incestuous or criminal dreams, were only a way of doing incestual sex or killing someone without punishment. A dream is a succession of images, ideas, emotions, and sensations that occur for the most part involuntarily during certain stages of sleep. The hypothesis has been recently put forward by Revonsuo (2000) that the function of dreaming is to simulate threatening events, and to rehearse threat perception and threat avoidance (111). When the brain stem is transected between the anterior and the posterior colliculi in cats the decerebrate preparation is obtained. In cats and monkeys eye movements are accompanied by monophasic spiky potentials in the occipital cortex, in the lateral geniculate body and in the pontine tegmentum (66-69). Induction of rapid eye movement sleep by carbachol infusion into the pontine reticular formation of the rat. Absence of ponto-geniculo-occipital (PGO) spikes in rats. 27. They also argue that even "expensive and cumbersome evoked potential and computer averaging approaches have not helped us to analyze and compare desynchronized sleep physiology with that of waking in an effective way". Oniric behaviors, as any other behavior during wakefulness, comprise two types of identifiable manifestations: motor and vegetative. The PubMed wordmark and PubMed logo are registered trademarks of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). 136. Vertes RB, Eastman KE. Please enable it to take advantage of the complete set of features! Although related to the information fluxogram displayed in figure 2 of the present review, Hernandez-Pon's process involves the function of participating in "adaptive waking behavior", which does not seem to have a real meaning (136). 22. Doricchi F, Violani C. Dream recall in brain-damaged patients: a contribution to the neuropsychology of dreaming through a review of the literature. Sakai K, Sastre JP, Kanamori N, Jouvet M. State-specific neurons in the ponto-medullary reticular formation with special reference to the postural atonia during paradoxical sleep in the cat. Temporal patterns of discharges of pyramidal tract neurons during sleep and waking in the monkey. Further studies have shown that the pathways from the alphacoeruleus nuclei to inhibit the motoneurons are rather complex. Unfortunately, despite the opinion of great scientists of the past, most researchers that deal with sleep and dreaming, probably moved by philosophical, religious prejudice and a faulty reasoning, do not accept the idea that non-human animals do dream. 96. A direct pathway arising in the region of the coeruleus complex that projects to the bulbar medial reticular formation was described by Magoun & Rhines (1946) and does heavily inhibit motoneurons (49). WebAbstract. J Physiol (London) 1993;461:549-63. 125. 112. Considering dreams as hallucinations, Hernndez-Pen (1966) theorized that they are possible because the system responsible for wakefulness is inactivated during sleep, releasing memory tracings which are brought to consciousness. Desseilles M, Dang-Vu TT, Sterpenich V, Schwartz S. Conscious Cogn. The meaning of dreams is therefore still an unsolved problem. Fortunately, this author did not suggest that dreaming, with all its movements, is intended to produce heat from the fake muscular contractions that occur as an expression of dreams. 101. Many hypotheses have been advanced but so far they do not explain why and what for we do dream. Unauthorized use of these marks is strictly prohibited. Baldissera F, Cesa-Bianchi MG, Mancia M. Spinal reflexes in normal and unrestrained cats during sleep and wakefulness. With developments in understanding of the neurophysiology of REM sleep, new Ponto-geniculo-occipital (PGO) burst neurons: correlative evidence for neuronal generators of PGO waves. 77. The discovery of the close association between rapid eye movement (REM) sleep and dreaming and development of sleep laboratory techniques ushered in a new era in the study of dreams. 103. 129. Science 1978;201:269-72. Dreams in which walking occurs are very common (4,5) and coincide with limb movements, however faulty. J Neurophysiol 1966;29:871-87. 120. World Fed Sleep Res Soc Newsletter 1997;5:20-1. Electroencephal Clin Neurophysiol 1966;21:562-77. Differentiating Oneiric Stupor in Agrypnia Excitata From Dreaming Disorders. Valle AC, Timo-Iaria C, Sameshima K, yamashita R. Theta waves and behavioral manifestations of alertness and dreaming activity in the rat. Oka T, Iwakiri H, Mori S. Pontine-induced generalized suppression of postural muscle tone in a reflexively standing acute decerebrate cat. The hyperventilation that results from hypoxia is diminished during desynchronized sleep (65) but there are no reports regarding changes in blood oxygenation while dreaming activity is occurring. It is not known why and how the potent inhibition of motoneurons is bypassed by the descending impulses that cause such movements but this is, possibly, a key phenomenon for the understanding of the mechanisms and the function of dreams. Recall of dreams is much greater and the report is much more detailed when one is awakened during desynchronized sleep and the stage I of synchronized sleep, right after alpha waves disappear and are replaced by a lower frequency and lower voltage electro-oscillographic pattern (22,23). It decreases, apparently exponentially as a function of age, from 60% at 4 to 30% at 7-8 and to 10% at 18 years of age (112). (ed. Timo-Iaria C, yamashita R, Hoshino K, Sousa-Melo A. Such electrophysiological studies demonstrate that the abovementioned sites in the central nervous system are involved in the oniric movements but they do not prove that such structures generate them. Expt Neurol 1976;53:328-38. Vision is our predominant sensory channel, so much so that if we hear a sound we immediately convey the eyes to the source of the sound, trying to identify its origin, even if vision is absent. yet, it is well known since Kohlschtter and Michelson (4,8) that the threshold to awaken a human being during desynchronized sleep is much lower than the one to produce wakefulness during synchronized sleep. Kohyama J, Shimomira M, Iwakawa y. Brainstem control of phasic mucsle activity during REM sleep: a review and hypothesis. During the first half of the twentieth century, despite the heavy influence of psychoanalysis, dreaming was again but sporadically studied scientifically. (eds. This is an additional fact to point to the activation of other mechanisms capable of producing wakefulness and desynchronized sleep, including dreaming. 88. The PGO potentials are correlates of dreams. Plato, despite his logical view of dreams, antecipated by 24 centuries one of the dogmas of psychoanalysis, stating that the dreams with a sexual background, mainly those with an incestuous content, and those in which the dreamer attacked or even killed someone, did, in fact, represent occult wishes that only could be fulfilled without punishment as an oniric experience. As stated above, any behavior is expressed as a combination of motor components and vegetative components. Doctoral thesis, Federal University of So Paulo, 1995. Despite such discrepancies, however, during synchronized sleep PRT studies reveal a decrease in global cerebral energy metabolism relative to both waking and desynchronized sleep. Much effort was devoted to searching for parallels between physiological aspects of REM sleep and characteristics of associated dreams, with modest results. The eye movements that occur during desynchronized sleep are equivalent to limb and face twitches occurring during the same phase of sleep and seem to have the same functional meaning. 21. Contemporary neuroscientific theories often view dreams as epiphenomena, and many of the proposals for their biological function are contradicted by the phenomenology of dreams themselves. In decerebrate cats eye movements do occur and are integrated below the midbrain (67,95). "Insects are also creatures that do sleep, so much so that they can be seen resting with no movements whatsoever. 83. Rothschuch KR. 75. 71. Jung R, Kornmller AE. During wakefulness such periods in rats are concomitant with short but complete immobilization, which is well known to occur when a high degree of attention is being directed to some external object. 47. Finally, in 1953 Aserinsky & Kleitman started the present phase of the study of sleep in humans. (eds.) Stern W, Forbes WN, Morgane PJ. 3. Braun AR, Balkin TJ, Wesenten NJ, Carson RE, Varga M, Baldwin P, et al. Recently, theta waves frequency were proved in our Laboratory to be linearly related to intelligence in rats, as evaluated by the time necessary to learn operant conditioning tasks (77). Evarts EV. 43. Miyauchi et al. 133. The previous station of these nuclei is the interpeduncular nucleus, whose stimulation with carbachol caused sleep within nearly 30 seconds. 8. Both frequency and voltage of theta waves in rats generally increase during oniric activity, as depicted in figure 7, and in figure 8 a clearcut episode of visual oniric activity is expressed as a potent increase in theta waves frequency and voltage, concomitantly with a burst of eye movements. By comparing the program with the peripheral information, that tells it how the behavior is evolving, the cerebellum produces corrections, so that the execution can match the program. No wonder that dream recall is impaired in brain-damaged patients (97). The substrate, physiological mechanism, and function of dreaming have been explained by many scientists from the neurological, psychiatric, psychological, and philosophical perspective. When a dream has a verbal content the tongue, lips and other facial muscles do contract and if the dream is deambulatory several lower limb muscles do contract, expressing the behavior triggered by the imagined walking. In 1963 we found that cholinergic stimulation of a descending pathway (within Nauta's limbic-mesencephalic system) causes sleep (33). Correspondence between sites of NGFI-A inductions in sites of morphological plasticity following exposure to environmental complexity. By visually examining the amplitude of theta waves in these examples it seems they vary at random but when the instant variation of voltage is plotted as a function of time, a regular variation appears during the phasic movements (figure 10). Thomas J, Benoit O. Individualisation d'un sommeil ondes lentes et activit phasique. The correlation between dream content and the oniric movements was first studied by Aristotle, who identified lip, eye and limb movements and correctly related them to what was being dreamed of. Socrates, Plato, Aristotle and Xenophanes, nearly 2,400 years ago, were opposed to the prevailing view of the phantastikon, that is, mystic apparitions, and to the premonitory character of dreams as their main characteristics. Eye movements in born-blinds are probably due to a quite different reason. However, interruption of the pyramidal tract hardly affects the appearance of muscular twitches during desyncronized sleep (83,84) but the reticulospinal tract seems to be involved in such twitches (85) whereas the associaton cortex does not appear to be activated (86). It is thus not surprising that during dreaming activity in rats both rostrum and vibrissae move preponderantly, probably because most of their dreams contain olfactory and snout tactile components. The most prominent, the activation-synthesis hypothesis, derived its view of dreaming directly from the neurophysiology of REM sleep, in particular the role of the brain stem, and in its original form regarded dreams as not essentially meaningful. The authors concluded that the correlation they found was probably involved in memory consolidation but such coincidence may indicate that during dreaming memorized information is being revoked to integrate a given dreaming pattern. The reason why when we dream we are walking we do not get out of the bed and really walk, or when we dream we are talking to someone we do not really talk, is that neural circuits located in the neighborhood of locus coeruleus, in the pontine tegmentum, inhibit the motoneurons and do not allow the real movements to occur. 33. Several authors also quantified the kinds of dreams as related to their sensory content. There are other definitions of the word dream, too. 61. However, human oniric behaviors are also expressed as lips, tongue and facial movements, as well as fingers, toes and whole limbs jerks, as described above. Stimulus response theory of dream: The stimulus response theory which existed prior to Freud is based upon the associationistic stimulus response view. This theory stresses the relationship between brain changes during sleep and changes in perceptual efficiency. Some disturbing stimuli force activity into one portion of the cerebral cortex. 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